Bilingualism
Bilingualism
If you are a Scarsdale parent with a chid who is now or has received
E.S.L. services, you have already made the decision, consciously or
unconsciously, to raise your child as a bilingual. You, yourself, probably
speak two or more languages.
At some point in your own life you were taught or exposed to languages other than the language spoken in your home. If you are curious about your own or your child’s bilingualism we hope these simple questions and answers will encourage further reading.
If you are looking for more in-depth information about this topic you can find a resource guide at the end of these questions. If you want or need help making decisions about maintaining your child’s bilingualism we, the E.S.L. staff of Scarsdale Schools, would be happy to meet with you to lend you our professional expertise and guidance.
We hope that this site will be of benefit to all Scarsdale families who wish to learn a bit more about issues of bilingualism. We look for your feedback so that we may improve this site. It has been constructed with you – our Scarsdale parents - in mind.
Frequently Asked Questions
(Click on a question or scroll down the page to find the answer.)
1.
Are there more bilingual men or women? Why?
Men. Men’s work outside the home or away from the village, city,
or country often necessitates that they be able to communicate in more
than one language.
2. Bilingual children
have less exposure to each of their languages than do monolingual children.
Does this mean that they will never fully master either language or
become fully proficient in either language?
Bilingual children do have less exposure to both languages than monolingual
children. Nonetheless, they are able to achieve the same level of proficiency
in all aspects of the two languages that monolingual children do. They
will be able to hear and speak both languages with native proficiency
levels. They will be able to control the grammatical aspects of both
languages. But, they must be given regular and substantial exposure
to each language.
Bilingual children do have somewhat different patterns of language development
than do monolingual children. Young children and beginning E.S.L. students
usually do not know as many words in either language as monolingual
speakers do. This is probably because bilingual children must store
two forms for every word that they learn, not just one. Bilingual children
may also be learning vocabulary from completely different sources. This
often means that they do not have the same vocabulary in both languages.
If they are typical E.S.L. students they usually know house related
vocabulary in one language and science related vocabulary in another.
When these two “vocabularies” meet, and the child knows that same words in two languages, they should have the same vocabulary range as their monolingual classmates. These differences are usually short term and are “likely to disappear” when a child enters school. Adapted from: Fred Genesee. Bilingual Acquisition. www.earlychildhood.com
3. Can nursery school support a child’s
bilingualism?
Many parents choose to send their children to minority language nursery
schools. This creates a supportive environment for the development of
first language literacy skills. Such nursery schools support and reinforce
the first language development that is occurring at home thus assuring
that the home language is maintained. For very young children who have
just moved to another country, maintaining the first language in a school
environment may ease the transition to a new culture and a new life.
For parents who are well established in a second language environment,
the choice of a majority language nursery school may help their child
move from a passive understanding of a second language to an active
speaking of that language in a relatively short period of time. In a
nursery school where adult language stimulation is well planned and
purposeful, fluency in nursery school is quite possible. The acquisition
of the second language is usually a happy and relatively easy experience.
4. Can I maintain my child’s English
when I leave the United States?
Maintaining a language in the absence of a rich learning environment,
whether it is a first or subsequent language, is a daunting task. Only
the most dedicated parents manage to succeed in the task.
Children must be exposed to the language on an ongoing basis whether
by association with other children or families that speak English or
through the use of an English language tutor. Children must have a rich
exposure to English in their homes. English reading materials must be
available to the children and they must be encouraged to read English
language materials regularly. Listening to English music or watching
English language movies will be of some benefit especially if subtitles
are displayed in English on the screen as the child watches. Maintaining
friendships with English language friends and writing to those friends
or pen pals will give a purpose to children who are trying to maintain
English once they return to their home countries. Finally, a supportive
attitude from parents and teachers will contribute to the maintenance
of English.
If a child begins to lose English when they move to their home country
do not be discouraged. This is normal. In junior or senior high school,
when your child again begins to formally study English, your child will
quickly retrieve their dormant English. The language memory will enable
your child to relearn English quickly and with more native-like pronunciation
and speech patterns than their classmates. They should also recover
their dormant grammar of English - an ear for the language that will
help their reading and writing skills.
5. Can music and drama help my child’s
bilingualism?
For a child to learn a subsequent language that language must be of
value to the child. The child must want to engage and participate in
using the language. It must be an enjoyable experience. When children
are encouraged to learn music in a second language or to recite poems
or to enact plays, they are engaging in pleasurable activities that
encourage language practice. When children actively engage in multi-sensory
activities using a second language we say that they are “anchoring”
that language. The language is coming alive within the child. In teenage
years it is especially important for children to engage in stimulating,
entertaining activities when they are acquiring a second or subsequent
language.
6. Does switching between two languages
have any value or purpose?
Bilingual speakers are known to “switch” languages under
specific situational, topical, and grammatical circumstances. Bilinguals
use code switching, the term used to describe the mixing of two languages
during one speech event, only with people whom they know to speak both
languages. The language ‘switch” may occur at the end on
a sentence, a phrase or other logical point in a conversation. Speakers
use code switching for specific speech purposes. Among the reasons
that a speaker uses code switching are:
To emphasize a particular point in conversation.
To express ideas more adequately in the language that has
better resources for that topic.
To repeat a phrase or command – for emphasis.
To emphasize in-group bonds of friendship.
To joke or otherwise interject humor into a conversation.
To exclude others from a conversation.
To indicate a change of attitude or relationship.
7. How are second language students with special needs identified?
Many factors may influence the identification of second language children
with special educational needs. Among the factors which may combine
to make identification difficult are: limited prior schooling, lack
of English language proficiency, lack of extensive development of the
student’s native language, cultural differences and expectations,
personal and family concerns and attitudes.
Because traditional instruments used to identify English language children
may not be valid with second language students, other methods of data
collection should be used. It is important to collect information on
the family history of the child, the developmental and health history
should also be taken. First language literacy development information
should be collected. Information about the length and quality of prior
schooling is important. Information about learning styles and the cultural
attitudes toward education are important.
Finally, classroom teachers should give input about the learner’s current academic ability. The use of standardized testing to assess the progress of non-English language learners is problematic. These instruments are normally designed for use with monolingual English speakers. They do not reliably assess speakers of other languages.
In their stead,
assessment of English language learners should include:
—A determination of the language to be used in testing (An assessment
of language dominance and proficiency must be
done).
—The gathering of cultural and developmental information.
—The collaboration among teachers, parents, ESL specialists,
psychologists, speech & language pathologists,
and school counselors.
—A determination of first language proficiency.
—An examination of the assessor’s cultural assumptions and expectations.
8. How can I help my child to become bilingual?
If a parent chooses to develop proficiency in two languages simultaneously
it is important that the parent make the choice a happy and enjoyable
one for the whole family. It is important that a child’s attitude
towards both languages be positive and that a child is continuously
encouraged to fully use both languages. A parent should show delight
whenever a child makes progress in any bilingual development that he
or she displays. When a child demonstrates new skills such as switching
languages to speak with grandparents, translating something for a friend,
or voluntarily reading a new book, parents should show their happiness.
Encouragement helps a child to put forth the effort needed to acquire
even greater proficiency in both languages. On the other hand, a parent
who constantly corrects a child or requires perfect grammatical accuracy
will create anxiety in their child and actually hinder language development.
Parents who forbid the use of one or another of the languages in the
home also stifle bilingual development.
9.
How can I overcome my children’s resistance to speaking our heritage
language?
There are stages and ages when children reject their parents, their
siblings and their heritage languages – especially if they are
members of an ethnic minority or a language minority. There are different
strategies that a parent can use to encourage heritage language use,
depending on the age of the child.
Praise the child when they use the heritage language. Use the language
yourself, consistently. Avoid force or punishment and above all, don’t
give up. Have patience. Make learning and practicing the home language
effortless and fun.
Expose children to heritage language books, movies, music videos and
computer programs. Search out heritage language speakers and create
opportunities for your child to have meaningful conversations with them.
Attend heritage language religious services. Seek out heritage language
babysitters and tutors. Include other children who speak the heritage
language in your family activities. Subscribe to a heritage language
newspaper.
10. How is second language proficiency
assessed?
In the second language classroom, assessment is a continuous process.
The teacher uses various tools to measure the progress of each student.
These may include writing portfolios, tests, reading inventories and
oral interviews. Combined and used properly, this collection of data
can inform a teacher about the progress that the learner is making.
Tests are used for language placement, program admissions and exits,
and college credit. When a student is being tested it is important to
consider which of the four primary language skills is being evaluated:
listening, speaking, reading, or writing. It is also important to know
who will be taking the test and why the test is being given –
for what purpose it is being used. Each test must be appropriate to
the person and situation being tested.
11. How many people in the world are bilingual?
It is impossible to determine just how many people are bilingual world
wide largely because the linguistic competency of individuals varies
and there are no clear guidelines about which competencies should be
used to determine who is bilingual. Research indicates that the majority
of the people on the planet are bilingual. If people speaking Pidgins
and Creoles are included or excluded from the count the percentage of
bilingual speakers will change. However, published estimates indicate
that the bilingual population ranges from between 60% and 75% of the
world’s people.
12. I need to change the languages
that I have used with my children. How will it affect them?
There are times when a parent’s work or life situation may change
drastically, whether by choice or necessity. If parents must move from
one country to another they may be tempted to switch languages used
within a home in an attempt to help their children adjust to the new
environment. This is an especially important decision if the move to
a new country is expected to last a long while. Circumstances, which
might also invite a change of home language, might include a change
in the nuclear family as a result of death, divorce, remarriage, or
having a grandparent join the family.
The family discussion around these circumstances needs to center upon
whether or not a change of language is a necessity or not. How will
a child’s emotional needs be met with a language change in the
midst of family uprooting? Which is more important for the child, stability
in the face of drastic change or academic support?
Whenever such a decision is being considered it is important to involve
children in the conversation at a level that the child can understand.
If a child is strongly opposed to a change of language it is probably
wise to put off such a change until a more settled time. If a child
is willing to change it is important to monitor the child’s reaction
to the change. It should be discussed with the child and the child must
be given a great deal of emotional support as the change is occurring.
Children manage language change better than adults do. They are quicker
to adapt and make new friends. If they are given additional support
and care, temporary psychological problems will quickly disappear. Very
young children will probably be unaware of the change that is taking
place. For these children it is important to make language change gradual,
decreasing the use of one language as you increase the use of another
over a longer period of time. A sudden overnight change is likely to
produce symptoms of distrust and nervousness in a very young child.
13.
Is it harder for a child to acquire two languages at once?
No. But it is different than learning a second language after a first
language. In recent studies, reported by Dr. Joy Hirsch from the Department
of Neurology at Cornell Medical Center, brain imaging techniques indicate
that there are differences in the brains of people who acquire languages
simultaneously and people who acquire languages sequentially. Children
who acquire a second language at an early age (before three) store the
two (or more) languages in adjacent portions of the brain. This suggests
that identical regions of the brain serve both languages. Late bilinguals,
however, appear to store their languages in more separate sections of
the brain. We cannot conclude from these findings, however, that learning
a language early on in life is better. Many people successfully learn
a second or third languages later in life. They learn them fully and
fluently.
14. Is there a “critical
age” when children shouldn’t be moved into a school with
a different language pattern and curriculum?
The “Critical Age Hypothesis’ for language learning has
largely been disproved. Languages can be successfully acquired in infancy
and in retirement. There are advantageous periods for language acquisition,
however. People who acquire a second language in the elementary years
are generally able to achieve more native-like pronunciation than those
who learn a language later in life.
Children who learn a second language before the age of seven appear
to have the easiest time. The cognitive and school demands on the children
are relatively light and the children usually adapt to new school and
language situations relatively easily. Children who are expected to
attend school in a second language after the age of seven usually require
some additional academic support both within and outside of the classroom.
Curriculum areas become more complex at this age, learning is built
upon concepts acquired in the primary grades, and it becomes more complex
and abstract. Children will need additional help and language support
to successfully negotiate this more advanced work.
Children who enter the junior high grades with little or no prior exposure
to the language of instruction will have an especially difficult time
academically. The complexities of moving between teachers and classrooms,
making new friends, learning complex subject based concepts and vocabulary,
and the increasing sophistication of the curriculum all contribute to
making academic life quite difficult. It is possible to succeed with
late immersion in a second language but parents must be prepared to
give their children a great deal of outside academic support.
In the early years of high school “if sufficient language support
is given inside the curriculum, in extra language classes outside the
usual subject curriculum, if the child is relatively optimistic, has
a positive attitude and motivation to learn the new language, and if
there is parental support and encouragement, it is possible that a child
may adapt” (Baker: 113). If a child who has no prior exposure
to the language of instruction enters a secondary school in the last
two years, when the curriculum demands are the greatest, parents need
to consider options that may be better for the child. This may include
allowing the child to continue in their present school, living with
family or friends or attending specialized boarding schools.
15. Language is an
important part of our religion. Should my child learn a second language
for this purpose?
Jews, Orthodox Christians, Moslems, and other Asian groups all share
a need to develop competency in a second language in order to participate
in daily religious observances. For many parents it is essential that
their children learn the appropriate religious language. The language
of worship becomes the tie that binds families, customs and religious
communities together. The language may also be the means to developing
greater spirituality or closeness to God. It develops pride in a child
and gives them a sense of ethnic and family identity. It also provides
a strong moral and ethical foundation for the child.
Some of the language learning requirements are limited to learning to
read. Moslems are expected to read the Koran in Arabic but may not be
able to write Arabic themselves or understand it in spoken conversation.
For Orthodox Christians and Jews the language learned may be used exclusively
for the purpose of prayer. In these instances the child learns a language
for one specific purpose but the use of that language may be extended
into other domains, when traveling or studying abroad for example.
16.
My child has a specific diagnosed problem (learning difficulty, language
disorder, emotional problem). Should we change to speaking one language
to the child rather than two languages? My child seems
slow in learning to read. Is this caused by bilingualism?
Bilingual families have no fewer or more children with language difficulties
or language related disorders than do monolingual families. When a child
is diagnosed with aphasia, dyslexia, a hearing disability, or with a
low I.Q. score, the diagnosis is unrelated to home language or bilingualism.
The specialist who diagnoses the problem will (hopefully) have the experience
and professional training necessary to deal with bilingual children.
Given the credentials and experience of the tester, parents may be assured
that bilingualism is not typically the cause of the problem.
Often times language delay is wrongfully attributed to bilingualism.
The solution sought by well meaning professionals may be mono-lingualism
in the majority language of school. Neither of these assumptions is
supported by research. Language delay occurs when a child is late beginning
to talk or when he lags behind peers in language development. Estimates
of young children demonstrating language delay vary from 1 in 5 to 1
in 20 (Baker: 79). Language delay has many causes (e.g. hearing loss,
autism, sub normality, cerebral palsy, psychological disturbance). In
approximately 60% of the cases of language delay the cause is not known.
Monolingual children with no medical problems, a normal I.Q., with normal
social relationships, may still demonstrate language delay. Such children
need specialized professional help. Speech and language pathologists,
psychologists and psychiatrists may also give advice and treatment.
Parents with such children must not be made to feel that they are alone
or that bilingualism is the cause of the disorder. Research does not
support this assumption. Often, well-meaning professionals advise parents
to drop the use of the home language for these children. This often
has disastrous consequences for the child. The home language gives a
sense of security to the child, even if the development of that language
is slow. If the language of love and caring suddenly disappears for
the child there may be a negative emotional impact.
It would be irresponsible to state that there are never situations where
the development of a single stronger language is preferable to maintaining
less developed bilingualism. However, parents must seek help in making
that determination from professionals who have specific training and
experience in dealing with bilingual children. Parents must discuss
their options with trusted friends, especially those who may have had
similar experiences. This will help parents clarify their own beliefs
and attitudes toward a monolingual solution. Finally, if monolingualism
is chosen as a solution parents should think of this as a temporary
situation. They should look to reintroduce bilingualism later.
17.
My child seems to have learning difficulties. Is this the result of
bilingualism?
When a child has difficulty in school many people point a finger at
bilingualism. Research does not support this assumption. Learning difficulties
occur in both monolingual and bilingual individuals at about the same
rates.
The only clear example of learning difficulty brought about by bilingualism
concerns situations when neither of the bilingual speaker’s languages
is fully or sufficiently developed to enable the person to do academic
work. In these rare cases the problem is not actually bilingualism but
rather a lack of rich language experience at home, in preschool, or
in the outside world. This general language depravation is not a product
of bilingualism per se but a result of “paucity of input.”
Canadian research has found that less able children are “surprisingly
capable of acquiring two languages early on.” Just as their mathematical
and reading skills may develop at a slightly slower pace than other
children so it is with languages. They will be acquired fully and systematically,
only with a bit less speed.
Learning difficulties are caused by a variety of factors having nothing
to do with bilingualism or even the child. If the child has received
a substandard education using poor teaching methods they may develop
learning problems. If a child is placed in a sink-or-swim language program
without sufficient academic support they may develop learning problems.
A child who is assessed in their weaker language may appear to demonstrate
learning problems. A language minority child with low self-esteem may
exhibit learning problems. A child with a low motivation to learn may
appear to have learning problems.
18. My child stutters. Is this caused by bilingualism?
During normal language development many children stutter (repeat sounds
or words). Between the ages of three and four stuttering is common.
When adults and older children are under performance pressure they may
stutter (e.g. when giving a speech). There are many theories about the
causes of stuttering – nervousness, brain activity, personality.
No one theory explains all of the causes of stuttering. There is little
evidence to suggest that bilingualism is a direct cause of stuttering
(Baker: 84).
Studies of bilingual stuttering indicate that cognitive overload may
be a contributing factor to stuttering. In those cases where cognitive
overload is the cause of stuttering the stuttering is usually temporary.
If a parent notices that their child has begun to stutter it is important
to give the child greater support, greater love, and more attention.
It is important to reduce anxiety in the child by reducing the number
and types of questions addressed to the child. The parent should also
check to ensure that their own language expectations for their child
– in either language - are neither unrealistic nor overly demanding.
19. My second language is not perfect.
Should I speak it to my child?
Language competency is not a point on a chart but a continuum. Language
that is “not perfect” varies from individual to individual
and so the answer to this question must vary. If your spoken second
language is filled with grammatical errors to the extent that you would
be a poor role model for your child, you should not use it with the
child. The child will “inherit” incorrect linguistic structures
from you that will be difficult to overcome when they attend school
in the second language. If, however, you have a working command of the
language, and if your child is very young (pre-school aged) so that
you can speak to him with simplified language where your correctness
is more or less assured, you may be a competent role model for your
child. You will grow in your ability to control the second language
as your child grows in his or hers.
It is important for you to help your child constantly expand and develop
their first language skills. If you help your child learn more sophisticated
vocabulary in your heritage language you will help your child transfer
that knowledge to his or her second language. If you ask your child
questions in the heritage language that require detailed or expansive
replies, you will be enhancing the development of the second language
as well. If you tell your child complicated stories in the first language
and invite the child to retell those stories to you, you will enhance
the second language development.
Finally, if you enroll in conversation classes where you can develop
your own second language communication skills you will help your child
develop their second language as well.
20. Should my child learn to read in one
language first?
Children rarely learn to read in two languages at the same time. If
a child is being taught to read in two languages it is advantageous
if the child learns to read in the stronger language first. If a weaker
language is the first language for reading, less development and slower
development will often occur.
Learning to read begins when a child is born. Listening and speaking
is a necessary preparation for learning to read. Vocabulary is acquired
prior to reading. Grammar is acquired prior to reading. As soon as a
child begins to acquire toys it is important for the child to have simple
books to read and play with. It is important to value books in the home.
In the very first year of life parents should begin to read picture
books to the child. They should sing to the child, recite poems and
nursery rhymes to him. By the end of the first year of life parents
should be reading simple books to their child every day. Children may
not understand every word in the books but they will begin to develop
a love for books.
As parents read to children they should point at the print and move
their finger across the page. They may gently take a child’s finger
and have them point to the words as they read to the child. As a child
is read to, night after night, the child will begin to recognize familiar
word forms and to associate meanings with them. The child may begin
to “read” these books out loud to their parents using memory
and picture cues to help them. The child will learn to love stories
and to love reading.
If it is comfortable for parents, books written in both target languages
can be introduced to a child in infancy. (Books with two languages on
opposing pages, however, are of no value to the parent trying to raise
a bilingual child.) When both languages are highly developed in the
child, biliteracy becomes possible. If one parent becomes the reader
in one language while the other parent becomes the reader in a second
language, it helps their child to understand the separation between
languages.
Learning to read in one language facilitates learning to read in a second
language because it extends the vocabulary of that language and it provides
a sound grammatical model for the later acquisition of writing skills.
21. What are the advantages of becoming
bilingual?
Research suggests that there are many advantages to becoming bilingual.
Bilingualism often allows children to communicate with their grandparents,
which can strengthen family bonds across both generations and countries.
Bilingualism offers speakers the opportunity to share the friendship
and cultures of other peoples in the world. Bilingualism teaches an
appreciation of the arts and traditions of two cultures. It promotes
tolerance and cross-cultural understanding.
22. What are the benefits of early language
learning?
Early language learning may provide students with the ability to communicate
with more people, it may improve over-all school performance and it
may benefit the child with superior mental flexibility and problem solving
skills. Students who know a second language may have additional job
opportunities. According to the College Board, in its 1992 College Bound
Seniors Report, students who have taken four or more years of a foreign
language scored higher on the verbal section of the Scholastic Aptitude
test (SAT) than those who had studied four or more years of any other
subject area. Additionally, their mathematics scores were identical
to the average scores of students who had studied four or more years
of mathematics. These results are consistent with annual findings of
the College Board over time. Some studies indicate that children who
study foreign languages are more creative and better problem solvers
than students who do not study another language.
23. What are the disadvantages of my child
being bilingual?
There are three major concerns when parents attempt to raise bilingual
children. The first concern is the development of both languages. It
is crucial for a bilingual child to be able to negotiate the academic
demands of school. If a child is unable to cope with academic demands
in either language that child has underdeveloped language skills. Another
problem that parents face when raising bilingual children is the amount
of effort required to continually foster the development of both languages
in their child. Finally, many parents struggle with issues of identity
with their children. This issue is especially difficult for some immigrant
families who may actively try to lose the identity with their home language
or culture. Such identity conflicts are not the result of bilingualism
but bilingualism is surely a contributing factor.
24.
What does it mean to be bilingual?
A bilingual person is able to speak two languages. A person who speaks
more than two languages is called ‘multilingual’. It is
common for most of the world’s societies to be multilingual. An
individual does not have to speak two languages with equal fluency to
be considered bilingual. Commonly, an individual will be stronger in
one language than another. It is also common for individuals to have
greater or lesser control over different topics in different languages,
perhaps being comfortable discussing science in the language of school
and good food in the heritage (home) language. Bilingualism does not
necessarily mean that a person is bi-literate, able to read and write
with equal ease in two or more languages.
25. What is bilingualism’s effect
upon aging?
In the June, 2004 issue of Psychology and Aging, Dr. Ellen Bialystok,
of York University in Canada, has reported the results of a series of
experiments which indicate that bilinguals may have a cognitive advantage
over monolinguals as they age. Dr. Bialystok’s studies attempted
to measure the fluid intelligence of her subjects. The tests that Dr.
Bialystok constructed involved “the Simon effect,” where
cognitive clashes cause a person’s reaction time to slow down.
The tasks required that subjects push specific computer keys whenever
a certain color flashed on the computer screen. The study found that
people who were bilingual for most of their lives were better able to
stay focused on the task amid a rapidly changing environment than were
monolingual participants. The ability to stay fixed on a task is called
fluid intelligence, and it is one of the first aspects of brain function
to deteriorate as people age. The research suggests that being able
to focus and maintain one’s attention while ignoring distractions,
may involve some of the same processes involved when using two languages.
This implies that bilingualism may provide a wide range of benefits
for helping the brain combat the normal effects of aging.
26. When should a child learn to read another language?
Children begin to read as soon as they are born. If parents expose their
children to written materials in two languages from birth, biliteracy
will be encouraged from the very beginning. If children are read-to
in two languages from birth they will be “primed” to read
in two languages themselves from a very early age. As children enter
nursery school their enjoyment in being read-to and in reading themselves
grows. Somewhere between the ages of four to seven most children are
usually beginning to read in one language while others are beginning
to read in two. During these formative years it is a good idea to bring
books into the home written in both target languages. If parents want
to encourage their child to read in two languages at once this will
usually happen between the ages of four and six (Baker: 93). If, on
the other hand, parents wish to teach their children to read sequentially,
with the dominant language first, the second language is best begun
at around seven years of age.
27. Will learning to read in one language
interfere with reading in a first language?
No. It will enhance the ability to read in a second language. When a
child learns a word for the first time, he learns not only the sound
of the word but also how it is used grammatically, under what conditions
it is used, and how the word relates to things in the real world - what
the word represents. When a bilingual individual learns that same word
in a second language they may have to learn another way to read, write
or pronounce the word but they already know what the word “means”.
So it is with reading.
When a bilingual child learns to read in a second language they bring
all of the information that they already have about the act of reading
to the task of reading a second language. They know that in many systems
letters represent sounds, sounds are sequentially ordered just as letters
are, words have meaning, words combine to make sentences and so forth.
They transfer these known literacy skills from their first language
to their second. Reading in a second language then becomes relatively
simple. Just as the child who is learning to speak a second language
may “mix’ words within a sentence, a child who is learning
to read a second language may read French words with an English accent
or use English spelling patterns when writing French sounds. This mixing
of languages in the early stages of reading a second language is normal.
Once a child learns the rules that govern pronunciation or spelling
in a second language these errors cease to be a problem.
If a child is learning to read two totally different scripts, such as
Chinese and English, where one script is alphabetic and the other is
not, the task of learning to read the second language is more difficult.
Nevertheless, children can and do learn to read and write totally unrelated
scripts. The difference is that there will be little if any language
transfer in the act of reading.
28. Will learning two languages
result in delays in English language development?
Children who have regular and rich exposure to two languages from parents
and other caregivers display approximately the same language development
as monolingual children at the same ages. It is important to remember
that there are large individual differences in language acquisition
in monolingual speakers. Some children acquire words and complex utterances
much earlier than other children. If a child shows a delay in reaching
any of the language acquisition milestones, it does not necessarily
mean that there is something seriously wrong with that child. In most
cases, it simply means, that, due to individual differences, the particular
child has taken longer to reach a particular stage of language development.
Bilingual children show the same types of individual differences that
monolingual children display.
What is important for bilingual parents to understand is that their
children need systematic exposure to both languages all the time. Parents
should try to avoid radical changes to the “language environment
of the child. Such changes can disrupt language development and create
difficulties for the child.” Adapted from Fred Genesee. Bilingual
Acquisition.
29. Will my child
be confused if s/he is raised with two languages and two cultures?
Children who are raised with a bicultural identity tend to be more accepting
of cultural differences in others. Research indicates that they are
generally more tolerant. They learn both languages better and they appear
to have greater linguistic flexibility than do monolinguals.
Children, whose home language and culture is disparaged by society,
may reject their cultural identity in an attempt to find acceptance
in the dominant society. It is important for all parents to create a
supportive environment for their children where they can be proud of
whom they are. This is important for the personal growth and psychological
well being of all children.
30. Will my child
learn two languages only half as well as a monolingual child?
No. There is no limit to the capacity of a person to acquire languages.
In fact, most of the world’s people are bilingual. What is different
in bilingual individuals is the amount of vocabulary that they possess.
Generally speaking, a monolingual speaker has a larger and more sophisticated
vocabulary in a single language than a bilingual speaker has in either
of their two languages. It is generally acknowledged that bilingual
individuals have two separate stores of vocabulary, one for each language.
When these stores are combined they are assumed to far exceed the amount
of vocabulary possessed by a monolingual individual.
31. Will my child’s thinking be affected by being bilingual?
Research on the processing of language within the brain is still in
its infancy. There is no current evidence to support a notion that there
is a difference in brain function between monolingual and bilingual
speakers.
32. Where can I find more information
about bilingualism?
Parents who want to learn more about bilingualism and raising bilingual
children have many resources available to them. An excellent book for
parents who are interested in raising bilingual children is, A Parents’
and Teachers’ Guide to Bilingualism by Colin Baker. The book
is currently out of print but I have found copies of it online at http://www.amazon.com.
Life With Two Languages by Francois Grosjean is a classic academically
oriented textbook that combines personal narratives and comments of
bilingual adults, basic terminology used in the field, and academic
research. This book should be part of the library of any teacher who
teaches multilingual students.
There are many web resources for parents on the web. Many of the resources
can be accessed in multiple languages.
The Bilingual Families Network is a volunteer website which contains
resource lists, chat rooms, and basic information about raising children
bilingually. It may be accessed at: http://www.nethelp.no/cindy.html.
The Center for Applied Linguistics (CAL) is the major government information
organization for educational information about languages, language teaching,
and language development. This website is a rich source of information
and resources available to parents of special needs students as well
as regular education students. The CAL website may be accessed at: http://www.cal.org.html.
The ERIC database is the source for most public school research. It
also contains papers presented at conferences, dissertations and the
like. Copies of ERIC documents and articles may be purchased on line
through the EDRS Web site. You can search directly on any topic at:
http://www.eric.org.html.
Parents who wish to learn more about issues of reading in a second language
might look at the website The Reading Matrix: An Online Journal. This
journal can also be accessed through the CAL website.
http://www.cal.org.html
Special Needs Families
Bilingual families who have children with special needs may find help
through several interactive websites. The NCELA Resources About Special
Education is comprised of articles and links regarding the education
of linguistically and culturally diverse (LCD) students who have special
educational needs.
The Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) is the largest international
professional organization dedicated to improving the educational outcomes
for exceptional children, the gifted, and children with disabilities.
LD Online is an interactive guide to learning disabilities for parents,
teachers and children.
The National center for Learning Disabilities (NCLD) provides national
leadership in support of children and adults through information, referral
services and other resources.
The Special Needs Education Discussion Group (SNE) ESL-SNE project offers
e-mail discussion groups for teachers, parents and new teachers who
are involved with the education of ESL students with special needs. Parents
may also wish to search the ERIC database for additional information
about special needs students.
Sources
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